The vast majority of people in Rome live in insulae, apartment buildings typically 4-6, but sometimes as high as 10, stories high. Most apartments consist of 1 or 2 rooms about 10 feet square, with sparse furnishings - a bed that's a frame with a leather strap foundation and straw-stuffed mattress, a straw-box "stove," and perhaps a couple of small tables, chairs, and chests. Wealthier families will have a house, comprising an entrance hall with an impluvium for catching rainwater in a cistern, with public rooms arranged around it, and then an inner house with bedrooms and private rooms arranged around a garden courtyard. Only the wealthiest families have interior plumbing. Lesser homes typically rent out some space to shops facing the street.

 

Roman houses are much more sparsely furnished than modern ones. Simple tables and chairs, chests, wooden screens, and beds comprise most of the furniture. Books (scrolls) are kept in leather buckets on shelves or in cubbyholes. (Codices, modern-style books with pages, a spine, and covers, have been around for about 200 years.) Although parchment (or in parts of the east, papyrus) is used for permanent writing, most writing is done on wax tablets. Wealthy homes may have statues in the garden or decorating the hosue, and most interior walls are painted, either with simple geometric or architectural patterns, or with scenes from mythology or nature. Exteriors of houses are usually plain plaster, painted with advertisements and graffiti.

 

Most Romans' diet consists of bread or a type of porriage made from grain and beans, as well as fruit and vegetables bought fresh at daily markets. Meat is expensive and typically reserved for religious feast days. Fish is mostly available at seaside towns, although some fish is caught in the Tiber. Breakfast is typically yesterday's bread dipped in watered wine, perhaps with a little honey, fruit, or olives. "Fast food" shops selling watered wine, sausages or grilled meats, bread, pickled vegetables, and the like are common. Otherwise, lunch is again leftover bread, with cheese, fruit, or leftovers from the previous night's dinner. Dinner is typically the most important meal. The wealthy host dinner parties and employ professional chefs to create pastries and dishes with exotic meats, spices, and other ingredients. A popular fad is to disguise an ingredient in a dish made to resemble something else, for example, roast fowl in a pastry shell made to look like a suckling pig.

 

Most Romans bathe at public baths, which are built and subsidized by imperial largesse and used for a small fee. The bather puts his clothes in a cubby and pays a doorman to look after them. He then enjoys a series of pools - warm, hot, and cold - and can get a massage, haircut, or shave. (Only foreigners and dissipate youths wear beards or long hair.) Wealthy men bring their own slaves to bathe them, while others bathe themselves or hire one of the bath's slaves. Bathing consists of rubbing the body down with olive oil (after the cold pool), and then scraping it off. Larger bath complexes also have an exercise area. Men and women bathe separately.

 

The denarius, a silver coin about the size of a quarter, was the main unit of Roman currency. A denarius could be divided into 4 sestercii, silver coins about the size of a dime, and each sestertius further divided into 4 asses (singular as), a copper coin about the size of a quarter. The sestertius is the common denomination for assessing large values. 25 denarii were equivalent to one aureus, a gold coin about the size of a dime. (There were intermediate coins - a gold half-aureus called a quinarius, a silver half-denarius also called a quinarius, a half-sestertius called a dupondius, and a quarter-as called a quadrans, but these four coins will more than suffice...)

While virtually every street has shops at street level, and temples and shrines abound throughout cities, the center of political and economic life is the forum. There are several fora in Rome, which served different purposes--for example the Forum Bovarium on the banks of the Tiber is the central cattle market. The Forum Romanum, between the Capitoline and Palatine hills, is the ancient heart of Rome, 800 years old, housing her greatest temples, monuments, and government buildings. It begins at the Colosseum in the southeast corner, and works its way northwest to the foot of the Capitoline hill. To the south, the imperial palace sits atop the Palatine hill. To the north are newer fora dedicated to Julius Caesar and Augustus, next to which Domitian is clearing space for a new forum dedicated to his father and brother.

 

During the Republic, the Senate reigned supreme; its published opinions carried the force of law, its members made up Rome's political and military elite, and Rome's destiny was decided the Curia and the courts. Although the peoples' will was sometimes represented through the tribunes or in the popular assemblies, even these were controlled by aristocratic factions. Since the reign of Augustus, however, the Senate's power has steadily diminished. Although it still exists, and serves as a source for magistrates and generals, it does so at the discretion (or whim) of the emperor.

 

Young men of the senatorial class work their way up a ladder of offices, each lasting a year, called the cursus honorum or "course of honors." While these offices were originally elected, generally now the emperor presents a slate of candidates which the Senate ratifies, without a popular vote. Generally, he starts by serving around age 20 as a military tribune. At age 30, he's eligible to run for quaestor, or public treasurer; there are 20 of these. After holding a quaestorship, the young man officially becomes a member of the Senate. Next, he serves as a tribune (not to be confused with a military tribune). During the Republic, these magistrates  could propose legislation to the popular assemblies or veto senatorial acts (ostensibly because they threatened the rights of the plebs); beginning with Augustus, however, the emperor assumed these powers, so tribunes are purely ceremonial. Around age 35, he would be able to run for praetor, judges and legal experts, of which there are 16. Between the quaestorship and praetorship, he might also serve as an aedile, in charge of public works. Praetors were entitled six lictors, public bodyguards who carried the fasces, bundles of rods that symbolized the magistrate's power.

 

Finally, at 42 he could run for the highest office, one of the two consuls, the chief executives of the senate. Frequently, however, the emperor holds one of the consulships (though sometimes for only part of the year), and the other is granted to someone whom the emperor wishes to honor (again, sometimes for only part of the year). The consuls call the senate into order and run its meetings; they can veto each others' proposals. Consuls are entitled to twelve lictors. In the senate, the consuls call on senators to give their opinions, and sometimes vote, by seniority. The senior ex-consul, known as the princeps senatus ("first of the senate") speaks first, and then the other ex-consuls by seniority, then the senior ex-praetor, and so on. The presiding consul can stop calling for opinions or votes at any point, and can either say that the senate has decided (if a consensus is clear), or call for a vote by division.

 

During the Republic, the Senate could appoint a pair of respected ex-consuls to hold the office of Censor. The Censors checked the property records to make sure members of the senatorial and equestrian orders qualified for their rank. They could also investigate citizens' moral behavior, and expell those who bring shame on their order. Under the empire, however, emperors have typically taken censorial powers onto themselves, creating and expelling senators as they see fit. Most emperors have also taken on tribunician power, allowing them to propose laws and veto acts of the Senate. In fact, most power in Rome is held directy by, in indirectly at the discretion of, the emperor. The government bureaucracy is for the most part made up of members of the emperor's household, either freedmen or clients, or by senators appointed to their offices by the emperor.

 

In addition to housing the Curia (Senate House), major temples, and law courts, the forum is a public space where people can set up small temporary shops or stalls, meet to discuss business or politics, or just hang out or socialize. Sometimes teachers conduct their classes on the steps of the law courts or temples. And, as the geographic center of the city, the forum is a natural meeting place.

 

The city itself is divided into 14 regions, supervised by the aediles and tribunes. Each region is further divided into 20 or so neighborhoods (vici), each of which elects four minor magistrates called magistri who are responsible for maintaining the upkeep of local shrines and overseeing local festivals.

The Roman police force, the vigiles, began as public fire brigades under Augustus, and eventually became responsible for public order and safety. The vigiles comprise seven cohorts of 1000 freedmen each, each under the command of a tribute and the whole under the Prefect of the Vigiles. The vigiles are spread through station houses throughout the City, patrolling the streets in small groups by day and especially by night. They typically carry axes, ropes and hooks, and sometimes buckets and ladders, and torches or lanterns by night. If they need to go armed, they'll typically carry light weapons - leather armor and helmets, shields, and cudgels or possibly swords.

 

In addition, there are three heavily armed military cohorts of 1000 men each, the urban cohorts, stationed in a barracks on the Viminal hill to maintain order in times of crisis. The tribunes that command these cohorts report to the urban prefect, a senator appointed by the emperor. And, in times or grave agitation, the emperor's personal bodyguard, the Praetorian Guard, is also available.

 

For most Romans, safety is in their own hands. Romans are allowed to kill intruders in their homes, but unless crimes reach the point of assault or murder, the authorities rarely get involved--unless the victim is well-to-do. Those who can afford it employ men to guard their persons and home; the lower classes look to their patrons, to neighborhood associations (collegia) that can be little more than extortion rackets, or may report serious crimes to the urban prefect, who has the power to judge cases. Note that it is illegal to bear arms within the pomerium, the sacred boundary of the city. For this reason, the camp of the Praetorian Guards is outside the pomerium, and men assemble on for military service on the Field of Mars outside the pomerium as well. Armed soldiers within the city is usually a sign of a grave emergency, or tyrrany, although Praetorian Guards protect the emperor and the palace, and the urban cohorts when they police the city.

 

The old senatorial courts run by the praetors still exist for certain crimes such as murder, extortion, and treason, but hiring a lawyer (also usually a senator) is beyond the reach of most Romans, not to mention the fact that the upper classes tend to fare better in these courts than the lower. (Note that the testimony of slaves is admissible in court only if it has been extracted by torture.)

 

Punishment for minor crimes includes fines and corporal punishments such as flogging, branding, or "the fork," a kind of walking crucifixion. More serious crimes can carry a penalty of banishment or death. Those in danger of being convicted of a capital crime can commit suicide before being convicted to avoid having their homes and property forfeit to the emperor. (Bad emperors have been known to accuse men of treason in order to seize their property...)

For several hundred years, the Greeks have applied more-or-less scientific principles to medicine, though much superstition (as well as incorrect conclusions) remain, which the Romans have inherited. Most legitimate doctors in Rome are Greeks or Greek-trained. Romans understand the importance of diet and exercise, and have notions about coming into contact with bad airs, waters, or noxious substances, even if they don't know the exact vectors of diseases. Doctors typically treat diseases with purgatives and laxatives, bloodletting, massage, medicinal spas, and drugs, along with prayer and sacrifice. Some drugs are effective (willow bark, which contains the active ingredient in aspirin, is chewed to relieve pain), but some are ineffective or even dangerous.

 

Parallel to medicine, surgery was as well developed as it could be without bloodtyping, anesthesia, and antisepsis, primarily from the experience of surgeons in the legions. Doctors could set bones, extract weapon fragments, and cauterize or suture wounds. Wine was used as a disinfectant, and silver staples were used to help close wounds. Spiderwebs were used in wounds to promote clotting, and unwashed sheeps wool, containing lanolin, was used for dressings. Less frequently successful were removing tumors or surgery for head wounds or internal injuries.

The term of enlistment in the Roman legions is 20 years, and is limited to Roman citizens. Foreigners can enlist in the auxiliaries for 25 years to gain Roman citizenship. Legionaires are paid 225 denarii per year, and on retirement get a payout of about 3000 denarii, as well as a plot of land, usually in an overseas Roman colony. Soldiers who re-enlisted, known as evocati, were highly respected; they went through a quasi-religious initiation rite, and were often given special privileges and missions.

 

The backbone of the legion is heavy infantry. Legionaires wear either a heavy, reinforced chainmail shirt, or segmented plate armor, and carry a large shield. The carry a  javelin called a pilus that has a long, soft, barbed iron head that will embed in an enemy's shield to make it unusable. At close quarters, they fight with a short stabbing sword called a gladius. On the march, Roman soldiers also carry tools and pallisade stakes for building temporary camps, several days' rations, and their personal kit. This included the famous sageum, a waterproof hooded cloak made of unwashed sheep wool that allegedly stank but was very effective.

 

Legionaires fight in close ranks, where they will fight in the front rank for a minute or two, and then slip back through the ranks to the rear to recooperate (or be dragged back if injured) while a fresh legionaire takes over. Legionaire's shields can overlap to form a defensive wall; they can retreat in a square, or small units can form a "tortoise," a human tank bristling with spears and swords. Because of their discipline, Roman legionaires can defeat armies several times their size with few casualties. The legions employ auxiliaries as light infantry on their flanks, or as specialist troops such as archers, slingers, or cavalry (which act primarily as scouts and harriers, since they don't have stirrups and can't charge effectively).

 

The basic unit of the legion is the contubernalis, 8 men who share a tent. Ten contubernales form a century, led by an NCO called a centurion. Two centuries formed a maniple, three maniples a cohort, and ten cohorts a legion--about 4800 men, plus centurions, officers, clerks, engineers, and other staff. Each larger unit was commanded by progressively senior and higher-ranked centurions, up to the primipilus. The legion was commanded by a legate, an officer of senatorial rank, and six tribunes of equestrian or senatorial rank, as well as the camp prefect, who'd served as a centurion for many years and commanded the legion in the legate's absense.

 

The bulk of the legions are stationed along the frontiers, while peaceful provinces will have only a minimal military presence. Currently, their are 28 legions: 1 in Africa, 1 in Spain, 4 in Britain, 4 along the upper Rhine, 4 along the lower Rhine, 2 on the upper Danube, 4 on the lower Danube, 1 on the Balkan Adriatic coast, 2 on the Anatolian frontier, 2 in Syria, 1 in Judea, and 2 in Egypt. Although the legions build camps as they campaign, currently most legions are in semi-permanent camps, and towns quickly spring up to service them with food, armories, baths, bars, gambling, and women. Although legionaires are not allowed to marry, many take up with local girls, and often settle near their former camps when they muster out.

 

Although military service as a tribune, and later as a legate and finally as a praetorian or consular general, were an expected part of a senator's career, emperors were also suspicious of men who showed too much ambition, as challenges to their throne typically came from generals with several legions under their command. This was particularly the case during the Year of the Four Emperors (69AD), where 4 such generals became emperor. Usurpers typically make lavish promises of bonuses and land grants to secure the personal loyalty of their legions before making an attempt on the throne. Conversely, economic and political crises in Rome can delay a legion's getting paid, and bored soldiers who haven't been paid can quickly become muntineers who turn on their officers or persuade them to make an attempt at power.

Romans enjoy a variety of different spectacles--equestrian drills, athletic competitions, mock naval battles, serious drama and bawdy street theatre, military triumphs and religious processions--but far and away the most popular are chariot racing and gladiatorial games. The best seats are reserved for people of senatorial rank, and the next best for equestrians.

 

Although there are several venues for chariot racing in Rome, the largest is the Circus Maximus, on the east side of the Palatine hill. Chariot races begin with a procession of the teams. The four-horse chariots must go seven times around the Circus. Usually, there are four teams--Red, Blue, Green, and White--and fans are fanatically loyal to their team. Nero added two teams, Purple and Gold, and the largest venues can accommodate up to 10 teams. The charioteers wear the reins wrapped around their bodies, and carry knives to cut themselves free should they fall from their chariots.

 

Gladiatorial games began as funeral rites to offer blood to the deceased, but later were used to celebrate other occasions or were general entertainment. Rome's largest venue for games is the Flavian Amphitheatre; its construction was started by Nero and finished by Vespasian. It's colloquially known as the Coloseum after the colosal statue of Helios (originally modelled to look like Nero) in the plaza outside the arena. Games are also held in other amphitheatres or circuses, and sometimes even small temporary structures. Sometimes games may last for several days, and can also include mock hunts of exotic animals. Sometimes criminals under capital sentence were condemned to the arena, either to fight each other or professional gladiators, or to be thrown into the arena unarmed against wild beasts.

 

Most professional gladiators are free men take up the profession to escape debt or seeking fame and fortune. A few are slaves seeking their freedom, or prisoners of war. Victorious gladiators win a purse, so slave gladiators can buy their freedom after a certain number of bouts, or if admirers pay for their freedom. Also, professional gladiators are rarely killed these days unless they fight poorly--gladiators are an expensive commodity. Frequently they'll be spared when they appeal to the game's promoter, who must pay for them if they die; sometimes they'll fake their deaths with tricks. There were a number of different fighting styles based on armor and weapons. Professional gladiators trained in schools, the most famous of which were around Capua near Naples. Gladiators usually trained in all of the styles, and then chose the one they would use. After the Spartacus revolts about 150 years ago, great care was taken to ensure against another gladiator revolt. In 59AD, violence between gladiatorial fans from Pompeii and Nuceria led to several deaths, and both cities were forbidden to hold gladiatorial games for 10 years, and the promoters were exiled.

So, your land had just been taken over by the empire - how will your life change? If you're civilized--speak Greek, practice agriculture, live in cities--probably not much. The Romans may make your ruler a client king if he yielded gracefully, or one of his relatives or rivals if not. The province will get a cadre of Roman officials and advisors, and possibly have one or more legions stationed in it. Taxes may go up to pay tribute to Rome. Depending on who your other neighbors are, you may be left as a client kingdom, or eventually incorporated as a province of the empire. But for most people, aside from the taxes, life will go on as before.

 

 

If you were barbarians, however, things will be a lot different. For one thing, the Romans will have slaughtered or enslaved a large percentage of your male population of fighting age, as well as a good chunk of the non-fighting population. Needless to say, your people may harbor some resentment and start one or more revolts during the next generation or two, which you can expect the Romans to supress with savage brutality, with hundreds, thousands, or even tens of thousands executed, many by crucifixion. And, of course, you'll have Roman soldiers stationed in your land, followed by Roman tax collectors.

 

But then, things will start to change. The legions will build roads, and traders will begin to buy your goods and bring exotic wares from foreign lands. Legionaires will muster out and found colonies that will grow into towns, expanding trade. You'll learn more sophisticated agricultural techniques from the Romans, bringing you more food and new crops like vinyards. Plus, you'll get technology like aquaducts, sewers, medicine, and civil engineering; bath houses, entertainments, refined food and clothing. Romans will marry local girls and become invested in the place where they're living, and the settlements will attract other Romans as well as merchants and craftsmen from around the empire. As economic prosperity grows, the burden of taxes decreases. Your leaders, if they cooperate, will get Roman citizenship, and send their sons to Rome to be educated. They'll return and become part of the Roman administration. Eventually, more and more of your countrymen will earn Roman citizenship, through service to Rome or grants from the emperor, and it will be your descendents serving in the legions, bringing the benefits of civilization to your barbaric neighbors.

 

Note that there are two kinds of provinces - imperial and senatorial. Imperial provinces typically either have large numbers of troops stationed in them, or some important resource that the emperor wishes to maintain direct control over, such as Egypt's grain. These provinces are goverend by equestrians appointed by the emperor. Senatorial provinces are typically those that are peaceful, require few troops, and aside from their taxes have few critical resources. These are governed by praetors and consuls after their year of office ends. In Republican times, these ex-senators would be in charge of tax collecting (not to mention susceptible to bribes), so appointment to a wealthy province was a way to recoup the money needed to run for office (which included funding public works, putting on feasts and games, and sometimes outright bribery and vote-buying). Under the empire, however, tax collection is regularlized and monitored by imperial officials, and is usually much less corrupt.